Week One Ethics Development

The ethical system is built from many theories. Utilitarianism teaches to â€Å"do† the right things in life. Deontology follows dictations and commandments from the bible. The virtue theory contains the development of personal characteristics. It is interesting to know how a person develops morals and values and why everyone is different. Utilitarianism in ethics is the theory that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its usefulness in bringing about the most happiness of all those affected by it. The word utilitarianism comes from the Greek word telos, which means â€Å"end†. Under this direction, acting ethically means making decisions and taking actions that benefit the people by maximizing â€Å"good† and minimizing â€Å"bad† (danielsfund. org). Englishmen Jerry Bentham and John Stuart Mill were too of the most influential developers of the utilitarian view point. Utilitarianism focuses on the pursuit of happiness. Another theory is the deontology moral theory. While utilitarianism revolves around the concept of â€Å"the end justifies the means†, and deontology works on a concept that â€Å"the ends does not justify the means†. Deontology is another moral theory that is dependent on the Scriptures, which may refer to rules, moral laws, and intuition. It is based on the Greek word â€Å"deon† and â€Å"logos† meaning, â€Å"the study of duty†. In other words deontology is based on the idea that we have a duty to do certain things and to not do certain things. For example, if a person refuses to shoot someone because they feel they have a duty to follow the commandment â€Å"Thou shalt not kill†. This sentence becomes a rule that the person lives by. Deontologist have strong feelings about the words â€Å"right† and â€Å"good†. Rights have to do with actions. Good has to do with outcomes. They feel that â€Å"right† is the only consideration. Deontologist are people who freely choose to accept certain constraints and who decide what is right by looking at the nature of the act itself. Some establish rules, such as keep your promises, do not kill, etc. and some follow God’s commandments. They do not look at the consequences as a rule and sometimes find themselves in difficult situations. Deontologists face more problems then conflicting duties. They are sometimes accused of being cold hearted moral machines that ignore the world around them. There are many disputes with this moral theory because people question if they are being ethical by doing what God says because they want to go to heaven. There is a difference between being obedient and being ethical. Another fascinating theory is the virtue theory. The virtue theory is different from utilitarianism and deontology. Many philosophers believe that morality consists of following precisely defined rules of conduct. Virtue theorists place less emphasis on learning rules, instead stress the importance of developing good habits of character. The virtue theory emphasizes moral education since virtuous character traits are developed in one’s youth. Adults are responsible for instilling virtues in the young. There are certain traits which are seen to be virtuous. For example, a few are wisdom, courage, justice and temperance. Virtue ethics can be seen as an ethics of personal development. People can develop virtues over time, and so in theory, grow into a better person. The virtue theory describes the position of my morality on a personal level. My parents taught me right from wrong and how to be a good person. They were my role models and I am the person that I am today because of them. They taught me that stealing is worng, and to respect others. These things are in the bible an my family believes in God but for me that was not the first that I react to when I make a decision. My decision making is guided by characteristics and the virtues that are installed in me. When I was younger I made many terrible decisions but now that I am older and wiser I make better decisions. For example, one day I was leaving Wal-Mart and I noticed that my daughter which is two years old had a toy in her stroller that was not paid for. I immediately went back inside to pay for the item. Because I have great parents that was raised with the good morals and values I will honor them by installing those traits into my children so they will become good people and grow up to be successful in life. Deontology moral theory works for individuals who are obedient and utilitarianism is great for someone who believes in taking action for the good of all. The virtue theory will work for someone who has strong and positive role models in their life. All three of these theories are great ways to incorporate good values and morals. Finding the one the best fits a person’s lifestyle is a challenge.

The Evolution of Developmental Psychology

The Evolution of Developmental Psychology Jennifer Haag Walden’s University Lifespan Development September 9, 2012 Over the course of history, many scholars and researchers have discovered the evolution of developmental psychology. However, there are certain people throughout the course of history who have made more significant process in shedding light on developmental psychology as it is known today. The three best known theorists that helped people understand, or at least consider psychology, were Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget.These three men were able to develop and test theories that formed the modern idea of psychology. Without the vital research and theories, one might never have understood the inner workings of the mind and how nurturance, nature, and other factors affect a personality over time. Using research methods such as observation, correlational design, and several other methods, researchers are able to put together a bigger picture of developmen tal psychology. With research comes responsibility; a responsibility to protect the rights of those who are researched.Therefore, there is an ethics policy designed by the federal government that researchers are not supposed to violate. Psychology is an ever evolving unit and is something that will always change as life goes on. Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget are some of the best known psychological researchers ever known. Freud contributed several theories and had many followers of his teachings. One of his theories is the psychosexual theory. This theory emphasizes how parents manage their child’s sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years are crucial for healthy personality development (Berk, 2010).Even though the theory may be somewhat controversial, it is one that contributes to the evolutional development theory by suggesting that something that happens in childhood helps to form the adult. Erikson believed that there were significant psychologica l changes with each stage. His psychosocial theory emphasized that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands; the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills at each stage that make the individual an active, contributing member of society (Berk, 0210).With this theory, a person develops based on needs and the ability to control one’s self. Erikson was the believer in stages unlike Freud who believed that a single event in a child’s life would have such a big impact on adulthood. He introduced the time line of development from birth to late adulthood showing how the person changes with maturity. Adding to both of these theories is Jean Piaget’s cognitive-development theory which explains that children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world (Berk, 2010).This theory extends into adulthood as well. People learn new things everyday by manipulating things around them. Therefo re, if a child learns to manipulate things at a young age, they are capable of continuous learning or an ever evolving development of the mind. These three men helped shape the concept of psychology and helped researchers understand it better today by testing their theories over and over again. Research is the basis for any theory. Without research, there would be no foundation for anything.Therefore, studies must be conducted, people must be observed, interviews must be done, and information gathered. It has been known for some time that people are all different; the way they think, the way they react to different stimuli, and the way they interact with others. It is known that experiences and influences have quite a significant impact on a person’s psych. However, this would not have been known without the hours of laborious research conducted through studying people under different circumstances. One research method is observation.Observations can be done in many different ways. One is through correlational design. This is where researchers gather information on individuals, generally in natural life circumstances, without altering their experiences. Then they look at relationships between participants; characteristics and their behavior or development (Berk, 2010). This type of observation is the most natural and non-evasive way of conducting research and one of the best ways to get pure information. Using an evasive form of research can be useful as well, however.Interviews can help researchers in a big way by getting information straight from the subject without trying to guess what the person is thinking or what the person might do when faced with a situation. There are different ways to conduct interviews such as clinical interviews where a person takes part in an open conversation or structured interviews where a person takes a questionnaire, test, or simply answers a few questions. There are many ways to conduct research but there is just one thing; people must be respected and treated fairly when doing so which leads to ethics.Thus, the federal government came up with ethics codes to protect those being studied. There are certain rights a person has when being studied or evaluated for any type of mental health research. The rights of research participants include: protection from harm, informed consent, privacy, knowledge of results, and beneficial treatments. Protection from harm is the right to be protected from physical or psychological harm. Informed consent means that all participants or guardians of participants must sign their permission for the research to continue.Privacy means that information regarding them personally, identity, cannot be shared with outside parties. Knowledge of results means that those participating in the research have a right to know the outcome of that research and beneficial treatments is if experimental treatments believed to be beneficial are under investigation; participants in contr ol groups have the right to alternative beneficial treatments if they are available (Beck, 2010). Without these rights in place, people would not have any say in what was done to them or how the research was collected.People would, in essence, be nothing better than cattle told what to do in the name of research. Over all, research is necessary to help discover all the possibilities there are regarding psychological development. Researchers and theorists like Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget helped shed light on the evolution of psychology and how it is ever changing. Researching and gathering information is the only way to continually develop theories and test possibilities regarding mental health.In doing this, it is imperative to remember that those who are researched and observed have rights that need to be respected meaning an ethics code must be followed. Psychology, although centuries old, is still an enigma to be discovered with constantly evolving aspects that r esearchers may never fully understand. Reference: Berk, L. E. ,(2010). Development Through the Lifespan. (5th ed. ). Pearson Education, Inc. , Allyn &Bacon, 75 Arlington Street, Suite 300 Boston MA 02116

Wanderer in a Waste Land Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Wanderer in a Waste Land - Essay Example Indeed, his reference to the fire represents certain unnecessary desires for human beings. In particular, Eliot suggests in â€Å"The Fire Sermon† that these desires cause intense destruction to their respective immediate environments. Ideally, human beings should be free from such desires as numerous seductions (Thesing & Wrede). However, this is not what happens in the contemporary world, as Eliot would wish. The fire burns up a moral civilization and replaces it with one that is sinful in a symbolic manner. Consequently, the desires, which Eliot dislikes, cause uncountable evils hence the need to avoid them. There is a noteworthy divergence in the use of fire in this film called â€Å"The Way Back†. This is because fire does not refer to any human sins in this film. However, it is a positive phenomenon for the wanderer who experiences several hardships. For example, the wanderer needs the fire to warm himself on his way to India. The wanderer cannot survive without the fire given that the place he has to go through has extremely cold weather. In addition, the nights get cold hence necessitating the presence of the fire to the wanderer. Moreover, the wanderer must have fire to cook all the foods because there are no alternative cooking methods in the desert. The fire also plays other significant roles in the wilderness, for example, providing light (Weir). Eliot uses the phenomenon of water to introduce a feeling of realizing ones sins. For example, in this section of the poem he reveals characters who finally understand their sins. In addition, these characters wish to cleanse their respective souls because they now hate sin. Consequently, this significant realization occurs through water. Indeed, there is an admirable change in the characters that change from their respective sinful manners. Consequently, the film uses water to indicate an element of survival for the wanderers

Emotional Appeal in McCarthys On Immortality Article

Emotional Appeal in McCarthys On Immortality - Article Example The paper analyses ‘On Immortality’. McCarthy extensively uses figurative language as an emotional appeal to present immortality as an immature and unwise idea. The author uses the metaphorical comparison, terming it as a highway of immortality, to show the carefree life that immortality would be. With the wideness and the smoothness associated with a highway, the author suggests that immortality does not have checks. Indeed, McCarthy further uses figurative language in arguing that this kind of life does not have a weigh station of wisdom. It therefore portrays the lack of wisdom associated with immortality where humans lack the maturity to handle the challenges that come with it. This has been used to further solidify the author’s stand against immortality. This comes out vividly when McCarthy talks of the possibility of a rise of unstoppable mortal species that would eliminate the immortal beings due to natural selection. The author thus persuades the reader of longevity as being more favored by nature than immortality which is not well thought about. Similes in the essay have been used to discredit immortality as a form of lifestyle that would objectify human life. McCarthy (546) compares immortality to a car, where in order to keep it going, then, there would be the need to keep replacing its parts. This intends to make the reader appreciate that immortality would turn humans into objects. It would make their operations resemble that of objects such that in order to keep them going, then worn out parts of their bodies would be replaced with new ones, just as worn out parts of a car get replaced to enable them keep moving. This, therefore, means that immortality would make humans lose their humanness, an aspect which they treasure, and adopt a new objectified life. It is this loss that the author uses to portray the unattractiveness of immortality. The author’s use of irony enables her convince the reader of the advantage that com es with mortality. It is ironical that humans admire long life more than they seek for â€Å"long healthy life† while they â€Å"want to be 100 years old and dewy fresh† (McCarthy 547). Since aging is inevitable, McCarthy indicates that the immortal life would be a source of pain to humans, who only seek to live without considering the quality of life. Human longevity, on the other hand, considers the duration and quality of life, appreciating the need for human health. After execution of the required assignment, which McCarthy (547) notes is to bring forth the future, they then pave way for the fresher generation, thus creating room for the new generation, space being an important component of quality life. This way, the quality of li

Cloud Computing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Cloud Computing - Essay Example Cloud computing is arguably the most popular emergent computing paradigm of the last decade (Hayes, 2009) and a technology at the peak of the Gartner hype cycle (Schonfeld, 2008). Cloud Computing aims at reducing the costs associated with management of hardware and software resources by shifting the computing infrastructure from on-site to on-network through the use of a variety of technologies that offer everything as a service under what could be generalized as â€Å"XaaS† (Rimal et al., 2009). X here could refer to software, platform, hardware, infrastructure, database, business, framework, organization and so on. One of the major challenges for the proponents of cloud computing has been to clear the confusion over the definition of cloud computing. Geelan (2009) analysed definitions from 21 cloud computing experts and none of them provided a unified definition as they all seemed to focus on different aspects of the cloud. To remove confusion with regards to what the cloud is in this research, we shall use the definition proposed by Vaquero et al. (2009) in this paper. Vaquero et al. (2009) built upon the work of Geelan (2009) and additional definitions from other experts to arrive at the definition below: Clouds are a large pool of easily usable and accessible virtualized resources (such as hardware, development platforms and/or services). These resources can be dynamically re-configured to adjust to a variable load (scale), allowing also for an optimum resource utilization. This pool of resources is typically exploited by a pay-per-use model in which guarantees are offered by the Infrastructure Provider by means of customized Service Level Agreements (SLAs) (Vaquero et al., 2009, p.51). ... One of the major challenges for the proponents of cloud computing has been to clear the confusion over the definition of cloud computing. Geelan (2009) analysed definitions from 21 cloud computing experts and none of them provided a unified definition as they all seemed to focus on different aspects of the cloud. To remove confusion with regards to what the cloud is in this research, we shall use the definition proposed by Vaquero et al. (2009) in this paper. Vaquero et al. (2009) built upon the work of Geelan (2009) and additional definitions from other experts to arrive at the definition below: Clouds are a large pool of easily usable and accessible virtualized resources (such as hardware, development platforms and/or services). These resources can be dynamically re-configured to adjust to a variable load (scale), allowing also for an optimum resource utilization. This pool of resources is typically exploited by a pay-per-use model in which guarantees are offered by the Inf rastructure Provider by means of customized Service Level Agreements (SLAs) (Vaquero et al., 2009, p.51). 2.0. Pros and Cons of Cloud Computing To appreciate the advantages of cloud computing and to analyse its disadvantages we have to first comprehend the different modes of delivery of this new paradigm. Each of these forms of delivery offers different advantages and disadvantages to different businesses. Cloud computing allows delivery of computing resources as services in the form of Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS) or Software as a Service (SaaS) depending on the level of abstraction that the client desires. 2.1. Infrastructure as a service Under IaaS, instead of

Constructing Report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Constructing Report - Research Paper Example Thus, they must follow the rules set by the EU to access any electronically stored personal records. Therefore, for the US investigators to be able to get information of individuals they have to gain access to their private data and get their details. For example, they are competent of obtaining the individuals’ live data using the advanced forensic pitfalls such as the encryption, or even the malicious running of the data procedures and also the networked storage pools information. Thus, the investigators need to obtain this personal forensic information in incidences like the abduction of children, missing of individuals, exploitation of individuals, and the act of pedophiles. These cases normally require the investigators to act very quickly and in time so as to effectively solve them. Thus, those investigators who are dealing with cases of crimes, forensics, and the suspects cases require them to act quickly and obtain evidence very fast without delay (Bennet & Raab, 2007) . Identification of the applicable legal constraints involving the discovery of stored personally identifiable EU member information (also known as ESI) The abbreviation ESI stands for the electronically stored information of an individual. These are the information details of an individual that are stored in the computers and other electronics devices. For these procedures to be regarded as legal and acceptable by a state, they must therefore utilize a set of legal law and also standards (Bayuk, 2005). First, the investigator is chiefly appointed by the government body. The investigator must be able to identify and utilize a set of legal procedures which are applicable in the discovery of the stored personal records for any forensic investigations. Moreover, they have to ensure limited types of personal data are collected from the member states of the EU. For instance, the data that is capable of revealing an individual’s ethnic, or the race, also the political conviction un less the investigator collecting that information has the right to do so in the member country. Secondly, the investigator must guarantee accuracy of the forensic details collected. The investigator ought to ensure accuracy of forensic data and any inaccurate data must be deleted. This is to enable the availability of correct data and therefore the inaccurate forensic details must be removed or updated and rectified. Additionally, the investigator of the EU members must further ensure that the information collected from the individuals is kept securely and safely. Moreover, the data investigator must further make certain that they have implemented appropriate technical and also organizational measures so as to protect it against any forms of accidental loss, or even the alterations, or from any unauthorized disclosure or even access. There must be redress of the forensic data. This is an independent mechanism that ensures individuals have recourse if they want to and feel like their rights to their personal details has been interfered with or infringed. Eventually, the investigator must ensure that the individual has a right and access to the power to investigate claims of forensic data protection violations. They must also have a right to intervene

Unethical Desion in business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Unethical Desion in business - Essay Example what Alan Greenspan called the â€Å"increasingly complex financial instruments† that were supposed to have built â€Å"a far more efficient, flexible and resilient financial system† were actually tools designed to circumvent the banking regulatory system meant to ensure safety and prudence in the first place (Lewis et al., 2010:79). The bankers behind them were not motivated by any desire other than greed for profits, and their greed cost hundreds of thousands of people worldwide their homes, jobs, and the security of their families. In earlier times and even today in many cultures, the image of a businessman connotes shrewd selfishness that will not hesitate to pry the last dollar from an unwitting customer’s fingers. In many instances, the impression is well-justified, prompted by the oft-used phrase: â€Å"It’s only business† in explaining why the hapless customer should find himself short-changed. The multi-million dollar golden parachutes CEOs of the failed banks awarded themselves with before abandoning the ship of drowning investors are perfectly legal, they argue: it’s just business, as if that were sufficient excuse to avoid the norms of ethical behaviour. It is often thought that unethical behaviour in business is caused by the lack of time to ponder the repercussions of a decision that must be made in haste. That is not so, according to a recent study. Zhong, et al. (2010) found just the opposite, that the greater the time for deliberation, the less ethical the decision tends to be. This appears to contradict all known earlier philosophies that the time to reason ensures ethical choices. The experiment performed in the study, however, seems to suggest that when given the freedom to consult their consciences before acting, instead of simply following the rules, one is persuaded to rationalize his actions, to provide some â€Å"good† to explain why an unethical decision (usually more beneficial to himself) could be made. In simple words, the

Information system Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Information system - Essay Example (BBC 2008) Technology implies something scientific in a broader definition of the word. But for the commercial and industrial world, technology means information technology – an all embracing term that cover all aspects of information systems, technological or not, within a business. The initial funding of 300 million euros for the European Institute of Technology in Budapest is a testament to such fact and the institution prioritizes IT project along with renewable energy. (BBC) The BBC report highlighted that in pooling the expertise of universities, research bodies and businesses, the institute will play a prominent role in the European Union’s strategy of promoting jobs, growth and competitiveness. Because of what it does, technology is crucial to business. There are two main reasons: First, without effective use of technology, an organization cannot sustain any competitive position and, secondly, technology-driven innovation becomes the only viable route to long term growth. In integrating information technology, for instance, to the overall business strategy, the ability to lower cost and make profits are enhanced. It plays a vital role in corporate success because it enhances business strategies by making their execution faster, more efficient and effective, and more responsive to customer needs and market conditions. Just as the BBC report cited in this paper highlighted for us, technology is no longer solely an opportunity for companies; it has become a requirement and standard in order for them to

Starbucks Coffee Essay Example for Free

Starbucks Coffee Essay Starbucks coffee has pursued rapid expansion both at home and abroad. In mid- 2004, Starbucks could boast more than 7,800 outlets around the world, and chairman Howard Schultz and CEO Orin Smith have no plans to slow the growth, ? The company planned at least 1, 300 more stores in 2004 and has a long term goal of reaching 10, 000 outlets in the United States alone. The presidents vision is that the company ? Starbucks? could have as many as 15,000 international stores. Today Starbucks has nearly 1, 500 store outlets in the United States including Europe , Pacific Rim ,Middle East and Mexico. ? Most of Starbucks international stores are now operated as joint ventures with local companies. Starbucks has to go fast or lose the opportunity ? and a local partner can facilitate rapid development of a new market. Executives are learning to adapt the companys operating methods and product offerings to better suit local conditions and tastes. 1) ? How could you classify Starbucks grand strategy and global strategy? Which of Porters competitive strategies is the company using? Explain each answer? ? ? We classified the grand strategy of starbucks pertaining to its Growth. In order for starbucks to sell and market its products is by: ? A. ?Allocating new funds to invest namely like prime locations and lots. Basically any establishment will earn more if the store is located in a highly busy route or place. Potential clients can be marketed. ? B. Investing in hiring the best and qualified personnel. In order for a store to run smoothly , the company should have competent and high breed of people who can manage the store and the same time enjoy the work itself. ? C. ?Purchasing of new set of equipments , glassware , lighting , tables and chairs can be a plus factor for a good ambiance. For the Global Strategy , Starbuck is implementing Transitional process where in they seek to achieve both global integration and national responsiveness. A true transitional strategy is difficult to achieve , because one goal requires close global coordination while the other goal requires local flexibility. However a lot of increased competition means they must achieve global efficiency , going pressure to meet local demands and national responsiveness. Starbucks designs quality stores to sell and market its products to use components in a few larger scale, basically , the company goes global to introduce it to other countries and to increase its market. 2. Discuss how top executives are using leadership structure , information and control systems and or human resource to implement international strategy? What steps would you recommend for implementing drive-through stores or Hear Music coffee houses? ? Top executives uses its leadership qualities by bringing Starbucks on a the right path and showing a vision for the company and its employees. Top executives have several ideas percolating to the companys growth. ? a. Establish rapport and solid partnership or joint venture with other countries makes things cohesive. b. ?Adapting the companys operating methods and product offerings to better suit local conditions and taste. Not all countries have same taste with regards to starbucks products. They sell what is needed and wanted. c. Acquiring highly skilled people barista? who can prepare , serve and enjoy the tasks. 3 Starbucks has typically maintained a uniform look and feel to its outlets and product offerings. What do you think this change might mean for starbucks in terms of further international expansion? ? ?Starbucks is known for there quality of coffee, excellent service and appealing ambiance. We believe Starbucks coffee is a brand and neighborhood name. You can see a starbucks store in a 2 km radius. Basically there everywhere. Making some changes the way they look and maintained a uniform type of set-up can only mean one thing. The Company is growing. Changes are normal. Most of the food and coffee establishments try to change and create ideas to in order to sell new products. As for starbucks , they should do the same to be more competitive and to increase sales and revenues. ?

A Christmas Carol Essay Example for Free

A Christmas Carol Essay Charles Dickens writing has had a colossal influence on millions of people by using what Victorian London and major cities of time were like. Through his novels he campaigned for the poor. Charles Dickens childhood was blighted by his fathers financial problems but by the end he was lecturing about his works to large and enthusiastic audiences. Driven by a need to separate himself from early poverty and by a desire to help those children who were as poor as he had been. Charles Dickens was born on Friday, February 7th 1812 at No. 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport; when the Industrial Revolution was gathering pace. As Charles Dickens grew up many large family groups living in villages were breaking up and moving to towns either singly or as nuclear families. Perhaps Dickens had a fear of the breaking up of the family group in the changing times. The bond of the family is shown for example when the Cratchits gather at Christmas; phrases like Bob hugged his daughter to his hearts content. are used. At age of 12 Dickens was removed from school and sent to work in a boot-blacking factory earning six shillings a week to help support the family. Charles considered the period to be the most terrible time in his life and would later write that he wondered how I could have been so easily cast away at such an age despair in his tone. This childhood poverty could have been an enormous influence on Dickens later views on social reform and the world he created through his novels. Dickens emphasised the big difference between family life and those who lived alone. He seems to try and show that happy people live in families for example this is shown when Mrs. Crachit greets Martha with obverse joy. Why bless your heart alive, my dear, how late you are. He suggests that sad people live alone. He starts the book A Christmas Carol with death Marley was dead. This is a grim start. He shows Scrooge as the sole executor, administrator, assign, legatee, friend and mourner. He also adds about the death of Hamlets father to increase the gloom. The book starts by pouring on the solitude and gloom of scrooges situation with the absence of a families love. Charles Dickens chose the Christmas time of year because it is a family time where many families split up by work join together to see and rejoice with one another. In the novel the Christmas season and children the families are linked to one another. The first cheerful words are from the Christmas greetings from Scrooges nephew cried a cheerful voice. This is followed by an argument of the value of Christmas between the Nephew and Scrooge. Scrooge talks of boiling people who like Christmas in their own pudding. Scrooges nephew then argues how much a good thing Christmas is I believe that it has done me good Scrooges nephew believes Christmas even though an expensive time for the rich is a good time for the poor families in the major cities of the time and gives Scrooges nephew a happy feeling of what goes on at Christmas. A few pages deeper into stave 2 Scrooge is taken back to his childhood by the Ghost of Christmas Past and sees all of his childhood friends and remembers the road they are on. The Ghost asks if Scrooge recollects where they are and Scrooges reply is a surprise I could walk it blindfold said Scrooge strange to have forgotten it for so many years! Replied the Spirit Scrooge had blocked out his childhood because it was a sad and poor time for him. Scrooge was seeing these boys were in great spirits. This implies that children represent joy and have appreciation for life making everything happy. Scrooge was thinking that he had watched these boys but had never been one himself. He was the solitary child, neglected by his friends. The importance and affection of families is shown when his sister takes him home. Also the joy of children is shown. As she is bending down to laugh she talks of, home being quote homes like heaven. An important figure in the story is his sister a child who Scrooge has affection for in his memory, this laughter pops up again. To hear Scrooge expending all the earnestness of his nature would have been a surprise to his business friends. Suddenly emotions are pouring out of Scrooge and he is excited because his inner child has had a slight play. Skipping to stave 3 and Tiny Tim who is a small boy with the power of delivering the message of Jesus. God bless us everyone. The picture of Tiny Tim greatly affects Scrooge who now sees the prejudice in his opinions. When the Crachit family celebrates Christmas they revel in each others company love and appreciate the things they have. They are unlike the stereotypical Victorian image of the working class commonly held at this period of time. Alas Tiny Tim he bore a little crutch his limbs supported by an Iron Frame Tiny Tim, their small crippled son will die with out the treatment needed. He is a small symbol of society failing to provide for the poor. The picture of Tiny Tim greatly affects Scrooge and he begins to realize how prejudice his opinions really are. The irony of his own words, spoken to him by the Ghost of Christmas Present if he is to die, he had better do it, and decrease the surplus population. Children are yet again used to show social problems in society. A boy and girl called Ignorance and Want are used to show the problems they were wretched, abject, frightful, hideous, miserable Scrooge is also shocked by the sight of Ignorance and Want, two children so named because of the treatment they received from society. Dickens is speaking to the reader at this point. Society is ignorant of the peoples needs. People are in want of basic supplies of food and drink, clothing and shelter. One example of this change in Scrooge is when he realises Tiny Tim has died. Tell me what man that was whom we saw lying dead? This then leads to a demonstration by the spirit of Christmas yet to come of Scrooges own death, this part of the text increases Scrooges realization of the significance of Tiny Tims death. Throughout the story, Scrooge has numerous warnings of his future from the people he meets, his nephew, Marley, the spirits, Belle etc. Although from the beginning of his acquaintance with the first Ghost, Scrooges gradual change is clearly perceptible, it is the spectacle of his own death, which makes him realize he must change his ways. On Christmas morning Scrooge wakes up and is cheerful. I am as happy as an angel Scrooge has Christmas fever and acts as if he was a child, he becomes generous sending Bob Crachit the prized turkey and promising the boy half a crown for buying the turkey. Does this show the sort of attitude Dickenss wants in society? The end of the novel contrasts well with the beginning. The story has a very typical fairy tale ending and a clear moral to the story. Scrooge has under gone a metamorphosis. Does Scrooges change symbolize the change in society that Dickens wanted?. Tiny Tim will live and so will everyone else, happily ever after. By Thomas Bailey 10CHB English Coursework 5/8/2007.

Planning, Leading And Controlling in Management

Planning, Leading And Controlling in Management In the era of modernisation these days, it appears that the purpose of managers in every single organisation is becoming so essential that we are required to understand the real concept behind management as well as the actual tasks performed by a manager. An understanding of the nature of management is vital for all members of society because all of us will at home stage to be a manager, and an understanding of the concept will enable us to become more effective in that role. Throughout the development of management, there are classical theories of management and modern management theory. Henri Fayol and Henry Mintzberg are both key figures in the management theories today and they are also both internationally renowned academic and authors on business and management with many articles and many books written. Henri Fayol (1841 1925) a French management theorist and managing director of a French mining company, is frequently seen as an essential early contributor to classical school of management theoies or more particularly, administrative management. He believed that management is an acquired skill and can therefore be taught. He wanted to introduce a set of principles that all organisations can apply in order to run properly. He built his theory of the five management functions upon personal observation and experience whilst he was working with French mining organisations, to find what worked well in terms of organisation. This theory was introduced in 1916. These functions serve the purpose of predicting the future of the environment and planning a relevant business strategy, developing a social and technical structure to the organisation, managing the activities of the staff, integrating plans and activities across the organisation and ensuring conformity with the plan via authority and feedback mechanisms to correct inappropriate activity but as he wrote his works in French it was not until some time afterwards that his management functions were recognised worldwide. The five functions were planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. Planning This is the first tool of the four functions in the management process. The difference between a successful and unsuccessful manager lies within the planning procedure. Planning is the logical thinking through goals and making the decision as to what needs to be accomplished in order to reach the organizations objectives. Managers use this process to plan for the future, like a blueprint to foresee problems, decide on the actions to evade difficult issues and to beat the competition. Planning is the first step in management and is essential as it facilitates control, valuable in decision making and in the avoidance of business ruin. Organizing In order to reach the objective outlined in the planning process, structuring the work of the organization is a vital concern. Organization is a matter of appointing individuals to assignments or responsibilities that blend together to develop one purpose, to accomplish the goals. These goals will be reached in accordance with the companys values and procedures. A manager must know their subordinates and what they are capable of in order to organize the most valuable resources a company has, its employees. (Bateman, Snell, 2007). This is achieved through management staffing the work division, setting up the training for the employees, acquiring resources, and organizing the work group into a productive team. The manager must then go over the plans with the team, break the assignments into units that one person can complete, link related jobs together in an understandable well-organized style and appoint the jobs to individuals. (Allen, G., 1998). Leading Organizational success is determined by the quality of leadership that is exhibited. A leader can be a manager, but a manager is not necessarily a leader, says Gemmy Allen (1998). Leadership is the power of persuasion of one person over others to inspire actions towards achieving the goals of the company. Those in the leadership role must be able to influence/motivate workers to an elevated goal and direct themselves to the duties or responsibilities assigned during the planning process. (Allen, G., 1998). Leadership involves the interpersonal characteristic of a managers position that includes communication and close contact with team members. (Bateman, Snell, 2007). Controlling The process that guarantees plans are being implemented properly is the controlling process. Henri Fayol stated that Controlling is the final link in the functional chain of management activities and brings the functions of management cycle full circle. This allows for the performance standard within the group to be set and communicated. Control allows for ease of delegating tasks to team members and as managers may be held accountable for the performance of subordinates, they may be wise to extend timely feedback of employee accomplishments. Henry Mintzberg was born September in Montreal, September 2, 1939. He was an internationally renowned academic and author on business and management. He is married to Sasha Sadilova and has two children from a previous marriage, Susie and Lisa. Henry Mintzberg is an internationally renowned academic and author who write prolifically on the topics of management and business strategy, with more than 150 articles and fifteen books to his name. He came up with the roles of management, which he believes cover most of the things a manager will encounter in their job. The reality of management is that the pressures of the job drive the manager to take on too much work, encourage interruption, respond to every stimulus, seek the tangible and avoid the abstract, make decisions in small increments. Mintzbergs key contribution was to highlight the importance of understanding CEOs time management and tasks in order to be able to improve their work and develop their skills appropriately. ÂÂ  these normative systems. Mintzberg does not assume ex-ante what an (in)effective or (non)successful manager entails. He also neglects the relationship between managerial behaviour and organisational effectiveness. Furthermore, he takes a neutral position on the managerial role omitting influences such as ownership and power. Identified contingency factors explain differences in the make-up of managerial work.The empirical study is based on five organisations in action. The small sample size means that the results should not be applied to all industry, organisations or management positions. In his 1973 study, Mintzberg declared that the managers position is always the starting point in organisational analysis. He also argued that managerial roles are sequential a manager first makes interpersonal contact through his formal status which in turn allows information processing and leads to decision making. Mintzberg later rejected this relationship based on new empirical data. The term management roles refers to specific categories of managerial behaviour, and Mintzberg concluded that what managers do, can be described by studying ten different and interrelated roles, grouped around interpersonal relationships, transfer of information, and last, but not least, decision making. Interpersonal Roles The ones that, like the name suggests, involve people and other ceremonial duties. Leader Responsible for staffing, training, and associated duties. Figurehead The symbolic head of the organization. Liaison Maintains the communication between all contacts and informers that compose the organizational network. Informational Roles Related to collecting, receiving, and disseminating information. Monitor Personally seek and receive information, to be able to understand the organization. Disseminator Transmits all import information received from outsiders to the members of the organization. Spokesperson On the contrary to the above role, here the manager transmits the organizations plans, policies and actions to outsiders. Decisional Roles Roles that revolve around making choices. Entrepreneur Seeks opportunities. Basically they search for change, respond to it, and exploit it. Negotiator Represents the organization at major negotiations. Resource Allocator Makes or approves all significant decisions related to the allocation of resources. Disturbance Handler Responsible for corrective action when the organization faces disturbances. Comparison Fayol identifies five elements of management- planning, organising, co-ordinating, commanding and controlling all of which he believed were necessary to facilitate the management process. In comparison Mintzberg considers management activities to fall within three broad groups- interpersonal, informational and decisional which encompass his ten management roles of figurehead, leader, liaison, spokesperson, disseminator, monitor, resource allocator, entrepreneur, disturbance handler and negotiator. Although due to their differences, these theories can be treated as competing views, both can also be perceived as reinforcing the other as many parallels and similarities intrinsically exist. Consequentially the term managerial style combines the two theories. Mintzberg obtained his theory as a result of research based on observation. Hence, his roles directly depict what managers do. He argues that Fayols functions do not describe the actual work of managers at all; they describe certain vague objectives of managerial work (Mintzberg 1971). As he observed the managers in his research, he found that all activities captured at lease one of his ten roles in practice whereas they could not be simplified to be known singularly as one of Fayols functions. For example, a manager sending a memo out to subordinates informing them of the outcome of the mornings meeting is directly taking on the informational role of disseminator- providing internal personnel with information obtained either external or internal of the organisation.

The Effects of Smoking on the Developing Fetus Essay -- Health Medical

The Effects of Smoking on the Developing Fetus The exposure of the fetus to nicotine during development has several effects. The most well known result of smoking is low birth weight of the infant. There are also some studies that reveal nicotine as a drug that can affect the brain of the developing fetus. Nicotine also has direct effects on the neurotransmitter systems in the CNS and may cause a decrease in cell growth which could result in mental impairment. The correlation between maternal smoking and low birth weight has been strongly established. Nicotine affects the placental function by inducing the release of norepinephrine and epinephrine into the maternal blood, which causes decreased blood flow to the placenta (1). The decreased blood flow causes a decrease in delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the fetus. This may have an effect on cell growth and development. High levels of carboxyhemoglobin are present in the blood of the mother and the fetus. This may decrease the capacity of the blood to transport oxygen and fetal hypoxia is the result (2). Fetal hypoxia and ischemia are major contributors to developmental defects, but nicotine has been implicated, in various studies, to have a direct affect on fetal development (3). Several studies suggest that nicotine interferes with cell acquisition and development in various brain regions. The developing nervous system seems to be more vulnerable to nicotine exposure than the rest of the body (4). This is important since nicotine readily crosses the placental barrier and fetal blood concentrations are equal to or above that of the mother (1). DNA can be used as a index for measuring cell acquisition. An experiment on rats by Lichtensteiger et. al. reported that DN... ...r. (1988) Prenatal adverse effects of nicotine on the developing brain. Progress in Brain Research. 73:137-157. 2. Moore, K. L. The Developing Human: Clinically oriented embryology, 4th edition. Philadelphia PA: W.B. Saunders Co., 1988, p.146. 3.Navarro, H. A., F. J. Seidler, J. P. Eylers, F. E. Baker, S. S. Dobbins, S. E. Lappi, T. A. Slotkin. (1989) Effects of Prenatal Nicotine Exposure on Development of Central and Peripheral Cholinergic Neurotransmitter Systems. Evidence for Cholinergic Trophic Influences in Developing Brain. The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 251(3):894-900. 4. Navarro, H. A., F. J. Seidler, R. D. Schwartz, F. E. Baker, S. S. Dobbins, T. A. Slotkin. (1989) Prenatal Exposure to Nicotine Impairs Nervous System Development at a Dose Which Does Not Affect Viability or Growth. Brain Research Bulletin. 23:187-192.

An Open Mind is a Prerequisite for Learning :: Personal Narrative Essay Example

An Open Mind is a Prerequisite for Learning The difference between comfort and open-mindedness is the difference between cowardliness and truthfulness. The mind that is open is open to the truth, whereas the close mind invents whatever truth it is comfortable with, so that it may persist in its delusions. To be truly open-minded, we must renounce the religion of our parents, and deny our cherished beliefs. Comfort is seduction. Better it is to suffer the pains of uncertainty, and the insanity of lost identity, so that we might open our minds to a firmer foundation, a deeper truth. Close-mindedness is afraid of reality. We need reality. Therefore, close-mindedness is a form of death worship. It denies our needs. Open-mindedness allows us to embrace the alien and discover what others will not discover. The distinction is between fear and love; life and death. Close mindedness is not a label for people who are not knowledgeable. That is what we call ignorance. Close-mindedness is willful ignorance, the unwillingness to see what is before them, and the unwillingness to see it for what it is. Close-mindedness is a form of dishonesty and fear. So yes, the position of the open minded is so right, for they are also open to criticism, and so they will have the greatest chance of being right. Any evidence they can get, they do get. Wisdom rejoices in rebuke. So to do the open minded consider insults, criticisms, and rejoinders very carefully. A close-minded person will consider an insult. He will not entertain the notion that he is wrong. Given that we are all wrong on some issue at all times, the close-minded man makes this chronic. He is stuck in infancy. As for your argument that close-minded people are better able to act, because they are sure, you are making the assumption that open-minded people are paralyzed by their acknowledgement of uncertainty. Far from it. Where the close-minded are comfortable with self-certainty, the open-minded are comfortable with uncertainty. They enjoy the instability of growth, which gives greater stability as they mature. You said there is no greater benefit then life then to be sure of your position. This is only true if your position is correct. If you are sure there is no hell, but there is one, your so-called benefit is your doom. Only the open minded have the right to be sure about any matter, for their knowledge is based on critical thinking, vigorous analysis, thorough questioning, and the consideration of positive and negative evidence.

Employee Turnover and Job Satisfaction Essay

A collection of peer-reviewed articles were used to examine the link between job satisfaction and employee turnover, as well as how to effectively use work motivation to decrease employee turnover rates. Though the literature surveys various types of studies in multiple settings, overall it indicates that how satisfied employees are with their work is directly linked with a business’ employee turnover rate. Major themes that emerged as the driving force behind job satisfaction are staffing concerns, the implementation of a rewards system, employee benefits and pay, employer to employer communication, the prevalence of moral stressors, role distinction, and the organizational environment of the business. The research indicates that some or all of these factors should be used as work motivators, increasing job satisfaction, and ultimately decreasing employee turnover rates. Keywords: job satisfaction, employee turnover, employee satisfaction, employee retention, work motivation, employee motivation, employee engagement, retention factors Minimizing Employee Turnover in a Clinical Environment by Creating Job Satisfaction People want to feel fulfilled in their work; this is not recent discovery (Katzell & Thomson, 1990). When a person feels that he or she is beginning to lose a sense of purpose at their place of employment, he or she moves on. Extensive research has been done in attempts to understand the causes behind employee turnover. The research examine in this literature review indicates that there is a direct link between employee turnover and job satisfaction. This paper will be exploring employee turnover in a variety of work situations; however, I will be observing with the purpose of implementing the findings within a healthcare setting. Since healthcare is something that is so vital in the lives of all people, it is absolutely  necessary that a healthcare system is run efficiently; for any business to be run efficiently, a skilled and competent staff is a requirement (Harter, Schmidt, & Hayes, 2002). Healthcare professions are highly demanding; without proper work motivation, employee retention may suffer. Though high employee turnover rates can be seen in many professions, they are becoming especially prevalent in healthcare scenarios (Belbin, Erwee, & Wiesner, 2012). One reason for this may be that healthcare is becoming such a strong force, both in our daily lives and in the business world (Barrett, 2010). A large healthcare system calls for an ample staff; with more employees, it generally follows that employee turnover rates will increase. Whatever the case, in order to maintain a successful clinic, one should have a clear understanding of what affects employee turnover. The goal of this paper is to understand the link between employee turnover rates and job satisfaction. Once these factors, or work motivators, are identified, this paper will examine how they can be implemented within a clinic to decrease employee turnover and increase the performance levels of employees. Definitions Employee turnover rate refers the frequency in which employers gain and lose employees (Cline, Reilly, & Moore, 2003). When examining turnover rates, some researchers like to make the distinction between voluntary and involuntary turnover. In this literature review, when I refer to employee turnover, I will be specifically focusing on voluntary turnover. Job satisfaction indicates the contentedness an individual feels toward their vocation. Job satisfaction, as this research will further confirm, is a complex and multifaceted concept; many factors are integral in the accomplishment of job satisfaction. As Sell & Cleal (2011) confirm, there are many theories on what motivates job satisfaction, whether it be dispositional, situational, or psychological. This literature review is mainly concerned with situational job satisfaction. Work motivation is defined by Lindner (1998) as â€Å"the inner force that drives individuals to achieve personal and organizational goals† (p. 1). Motivation is what gives us our purpose and tenacity; it is the desire achieve specific goals and to meet needs unmet. Rewards systems are implemented by employers to both make aware their expectations for their employees and for employees to receive the benefit of recognition when their job or task is performed with excellence (Shiraz, Rashid, & Riaz, 2011). Some examples of vocational rewards are promotions, monetary compensation, vacation, and recognition. Method Applicable research articles were found using resources and databases available through Cornerstone University in Grand Rapids, Michigan. The most advantageous databases were ProQuest, GaleGroup, AcademicOne, and PsychInfo. The following key words were used to help narrow search results: job satisfaction, employee turnover, employee satisfaction, employee retention, work motivation, employee motivation retention factors, and employee engagement. In order to keep this literature review applicable to current circumstances, articles dating before 2000 were not used, with the exception of those dealing with theoretical framework. The research was done in not only medical environments, but in a variety of work environments. The reason for this is that job satisfaction and employee turnover rates are very prevalent in a considerable number of professions. The findings found within each article may be effectively applied to a clinical setting. Each article used for this literature review is peer-reviewed. Review of Related Literature Since the concept of job satisfaction and its relation to job performance and employee turnover is such a large topic, this literature review will be focusing on several key factors: (a) the role of recognition and rewards in the work place (Shiraz et al., 2011); (b) meaningful communication between employer and employee (Sultan, 2012); (c) the importance of leadership and role definition in the work place (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). While all the researchers agreed that there are always a number of factors that influence employee turnover and job satisfaction, for succinctness, this particular literature review will specifically examine the aforementioned topics and their relationship to employee turnover and job satisfaction. While it may not immediately seem that these topics are intrinsically connected, by exploring these themes piece-by-piece, in conclusion we are able to see how  together they are able to offer insight into how job satisfaction can be improved. The role of rec ognition and rewards in the work place Within the workplace, both employers and employees maintain certain expectations of each other. Employers expect their employees to â€Å"take initiative, supervise themselves, continue to learn new skills, and be responsive to business needs† (Ali & Ahmed, 2009, p. 1). Employees expect, at the very least, to be treated with fairness, to be paid a reasonable salary, and to experience a safe working atmosphere (Ali & Ahmed, 2007). These are, as Linz (2010) puts it, â€Å"intrinsic rewards.† In Linz’s study, all employees valued these rewards as an integral part of job satisfaction and motivation; only some employees placed great value on â€Å"extrinsic rewards† such as promotions and recognition. In a theoretical study constructed by Lindner (1998), the research indicated that simply receiving â€Å"full appreciation for work done† was ranked significantly important in a list of factors linked with job satisfaction, coming in at third. However, in a study performed by Ali & Ahmed (2009), a questionnaire given to 80 Unilever employees showed that there was a significant correlation with the extrinsic reward recognition and how satisfied and motivated they were in their work. Ali & Ahmed (2007) used the Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient to quantify their data. In a study very similar to the one performed by Ali & Ahmed (2007), Danish (2010) hypothesized that there would be a strong relationship between recognition and work motivation; he also predicted that there would be a strong link between rewards and work motivation. Both of his hypotheses were supported; however, the link between recognition and work motivation, though positive, was not as strong as anticipated. Though the link between rewards and work motivation was slightly stronger than the correlation between recognition and work motivation, it still was not as significant as the link between work motivation and the content of the work itself. Like Ahmed & Ali (2007), Danish (2010) used the Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation Coefficient. Meaningful communication between employer and employee In a qualitative study of nurses who voluntarily left their jobs, researchers discovered that the reason the nurses communicated to their employer for  leaving was not consistent with the reason they gave to a neutral third party when posited with the same question (Cline, Reilly, & Moore, 2003). Interestingly enough, the reasons that they gave for leaving were directly connected with problems concerning communication with their managing staff. In a theoretical study designed by Lindner (1998) with the purpose of ranking factors associated with work motivation, the feeling of â€Å"being in on things† was among the more important factors, placing sixth in the line-up. Some other factors that were mentioned in Lindner’s study could also be linked with the concept of employer and employee communication: full appreciation of work done, personal loyalty to employees, tactful discipline, and sympathetic help with personal problems. Goris (2007) performed a moderated regression analysis on 302 employees. In his findings, he did not discover that employees’ communication-related interactions served as an indication of what types of jobs employees would choose. However, Goris (2007) did find that communication satisfaction was a primary predictor of employees’ performance and overall job satisfaction. The importance of leadership and role definition in the work place The research consistently indicates that the establishment of roles within a work environment is important when examining employee turnover and job satisfaction (Patnaik, 2011). In a study performed by Cline et. al (2003) in which they interviewed registered nurses who had voluntarily left their place of employed, leadership and group cohesion were factors that directly affected turnover and retention. In another study, Moynihan et al. (2007) used a questionnaire to uncover a direct, positive relationship between role clarity and how satisfied employees were with their jobs. However, in the same study, researchers found that role clarity did not seem to have much influence on the employees’ work involvement. Key Findings and Implications for Professional Practice The main focus of this literature is identifying the factors that influence job satisfaction and work motivation and how they influence employee turnover. The research indicates that there is a strong link between job satisfaction and employee retention and that there are several work motivators that can be implemented to increase job satisfaction and decrease employee turnover. In addition, the research implies that increased work  motivators and job satisfaction leads to higher performance levels in employees, greatly benefiting the organization or businesses they serve. While a high employee turnover rate is not hard for employees to see, it is oftentimes difficult to understand the reasons behind it. In this literature review, some real insight could be found in the study of registered nurse turnover rates performed by Cline et al. (2003). The nurses were very clear on their reasons for leaving their jobs when talking with a neutral third-party; however, because they did not feel comfortable communicating with staff members within their former place of employment, they were unable to voice these concerns to their former employer. This demonstrates a very keen example of a problem seen in many work environments: a lack of communication. Throughout much of literature considered in this review, communication, even if it was not directly named, emerged as a very important ingredient within an effective work environment. Through proper communication, employers and employees are able to not only discuss what needs to be accomplished, but they can begin to gain a better understanding of one another. Since there are such a number of work motivation factors, it is important for an employer, or, in larger companies, a manager to have open communication with their employees and get to know them so they can meet their needs, leading to great job satisfaction for that individual. It seems that communication is a joining theme throughout many of the work motivating factors explored. Within a clinical setting, communication can be cultivated through the establishment of meetings, memos, and clear definition of the clinic’s practices (Sultan, 2012). Role clarity, another factor in job satisfaction, can also be implemented through proper communication between staff members. Rewards within a clinic may be exhibited through compensation or promotion; however, recognition, a form of reward, can be achieved through verbal or written communication. Conclusion and Recommendations It is important to achieve an environment where one’s employees feel fulfilled since, as the research confirms, this is directly connected with how successful and effective a business can be (Moynihan & Pandey, 2007). Many might assume that how much an employee is paid is the driving force  behind whether or not they are satisfied with their job (Lindner, 1998). However, while that is a factor, many of studies included here, as well as well-respected theories on the subject of work motivation, imply that there are many other factors that influence how happy an employee is with their job. The work motivators explored specifically in this review all exhibit a strong correlation with job satisfaction, though they still do not encompass all the factors that influence a worker’s job satisfaction and motivation. Organized management, public service motivation, advancement opportunities, work content, and job routineness are some of the other factors that have a strong effect on job satisfaction. With such an array of factors to consider, it is clear that one cannot completely prevent employee turnover. However, as an employer or manager it is important to strive to create an environment where one’s employees are empowered and motivated to perform their job to their best of their ability. By implementing practices in which an employee feels understood and valued, an employer is able to create a work environment where employees not only feel satisfied in their job, but they also feel motivated to set and accomplish goals for themselves and for the business in which they serve. Especially in a healthcare setting, the motivation, which is to help make better, or even save the lives of others, is a substantial one. By gaining a better understanding of the work motivators that bring job satisfaction and minimize employee turnover, an employer can bring about outcomes that benefits clients, employees, and the future of their business. References Ali, R., & Ahmed, M. S. (2009). The impact of reward and recognition programs on employee’s motivation and satisfaction: an empirical study. International Review of Business Research Papers, 5(4), 270-279. Barrett, S. (2010). Healthcare: growing pains. Corporate Adviser, 33. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/757262546?accountid=10269 Belbin, C., Erwee, R., & Wiesner, R. (2012). Employee perceptions of workforce retention strategies in a health system. Journal of Management and Organization, 18(5), 742-760. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1268167639?accountid=10269 Cline, D., Reilly, C., & Moore, J. F. (2003). What’s behind RN turnover? Nursing Management, 34(10), 50-3. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/231383281?accountid=10269 Danish, R. & Usman, A. (2010). Impact of reward and recognition on job satisfaction and motivation: An empirical study from Pakistan. International Journal of Business and Management, 5(2), 159-167. Goris, J. R. (2007). Effects of satisfaction with communication on the relationship between individual-job congruence and job performance/satisfaction. Journal of Management Development, 26(8), 737-752. Retrieved from http://0 www.emeraldinsight.com.eaglelink.cornerstone.edu/journals.htm?articleid=1621587&s ow=abstract#sthash.u4JPs47o.dpuf Harter, J. K., Schmidt, F. L., & Hayes, T. L. (2002). Business-unit-level relationship between employee satisfaction, employee engagement, and business outcomes: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87(2), 268-279. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0021 9010.87.2.268 Katzell, R. A., & Thompson, D. E. (1990). Work motivation: Theory and practice. The American Psychologist, 45(2), 144. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212096149?accountid=10269 Linz, S.J. & Semykina, A. (2011). What makes workers happy? Anticipated rewards and job Satisfaction. Industrial Relations, 51(4), 811-844. Lindner, J. (1998). Understanding employee motivation. Journal of Extension (36)3. Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/1998june/rb3.php Moynihan, D. P., & Pandey, S. K. (2007). Finding workable levers over work motivation: Comparing job satisfaction, job involvement, and organizational commitment. Administration & Society, 39(7), 803-816,818-832. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/196814421?accountid=10269 Patnaik, J. B. (2011). Organizational culture: The key to effective leadership and work motivation. Social Science International, 27(1), 79-94. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/877005864?accountid=10269 Sell, L. & Cleal, B. (2011). Job satisfaction, work environment, and rewards: Motivational theory revisited. Labour, 25(1), 1–23. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9914.2010.00496.x Shiraz, N., Rashid, M., & Riaz, A. (2011). The impact of reward and recognition programs on employee’s motivation and satisfaction. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 3(3), 1428-1434. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/887726475?accountid=10269 Sultan, S. (2012, December 31). Examining the job characteristics: A matter of employees’ work motivation and job satisfaction. Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 22(2). Retrieved from http://0-go.galegroup.com.eaglelink.cornerstone.edu/ps/ i.do?id=GALE%7CA309533743&v=2.1&u=lom_cornerstc&it=r&p=AONE&sw=w

Disease Control and Prevention

There are three basic approaches to preventing and controlling transmission of diseases: a) vector control (if applicable), b) personal protection, and c) vaccination (â€Å"How Vaccines Prevent Disease†). The CDC has expanded existing domestic and international community-based control programs for preventing infectious diseases. New preventive projects are being evaluated, including preventives of antimicrobial resistance, food borne and water borne illness and others.â€Å"Prevention is better than cure† – we always hear this statement whenever a new disease outbreak occurs to a community or a region. Disease prevention is indeed far more economical than treating the disease itself. One of the most practiced is the use of vaccines (Overturft). Prevention and control of all non-vaccine preventable diseases must rely on vector control and personal protection. Vector control however is seldom supported as a n independent program.Rather, it is in general incorporat ed into a larger prevention program that engages active surveillance for the disease and the vectors, personal protection, diagnosis and management of the disease and vector control. The purpose of surveillance is to help prevent disease by providing a mechanism for early caution or epidemic action, thus allowing for public health action. This is more than ever true for vector borne diseases such as dengue that often cycle silently in an area with intermittent epidemics that may cause significant morbidity and mortality.As a result, it is significant to have active laboratory based surveillance for infectious diseases to keep an eye on transmission even though there may be no evident disease in humans or domestic animals (Gersovitz and Hammer). To manage the condition, and the global nature of the diseases, the World Health Organization has responded by expanding its surveillance and other operations to meet the challenge of emerging and recurrent infectious diseases (â€Å"Infecti ous Diseases†). Disease Control and Prevention In a family which has a history of birth defect cases, it is difficult to accept the truth that your future child has a greater risk of having a birth defect. Prevention of the possible birth defects is the most common advice given to the family by many doctors. The proper and enough absorption of folic acid give many expectant mothers low risk of having babies with birth defects. Not all birth defects are fatal or untreatable like many parents believe. Many improved medications on birth defects are available and guaranteed to prevent having babies with birth defect.Some are treatment for babies that still in the womb. The most important thing for the treatment is to be able for the mother to understand the risk factors and how she can prevent having a baby with a birth defect. Knowledge about Birth Defects A birth defect is an abnormality of structure, function or metabolism that is present at birth. This abnormality leads to mental or physical disability or can lead to death. Many birth defects are known ranging from minor to serious. They are considered the leading cause of death of many babies in their first year of life.According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), about 120,000 babies are born each year suffering from birth defects in the United States alone. Causes of Birth defects About 60% of the birth defect cases have unknown causes. Environmental and genetic factors are also causes of birth defects (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 352-356). Genetically inherited birth defects occur when one or both parents pass along a defective gene to the child. Genes carry thread-like structures called chromosomes that determine individual characteristics and feature (Millensky, 1989, 201-267).Any faulty or missing gene can cause birth defect. Some of the birth defects can only occur if both parents are carrier of the defect. Even healthy parents can have effective genes and pass this on to their child. This kind of event is called the recessive inheritance. Recessive diseases are more severe than dominant diseases. Some examples of birth defects that are caused by recessive inheritance are sickle cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, phenylketonuria (PKU) and cystic fibrosis (Millensky, 1989, 201-267).If only one parent passes along the recessive gene, the normal gene received from the other parent will prevent the disease. However, that child will be a carrier of the disease. The carrier of the disease has a 25% chance to have the disease if the other parent is also a carrier. Birth defects, such as Down syndrome, can also be caused by too many chromosomes or damaged chromosomes. Babies with Down syndrome have varying level of mental retardation and heart defects.On the other hand, environmental causes of birth defects include poor prenatal care, exposure to chemicals or radiation and use of drugs and alcoholic drinks during pregnancy. Any substance that can cause any abnormal development is termed â€Å"teratogenâ⠂¬â„¢ (Benneth, 2006, 217-230). Certain infections can result in birth defects when the woman deals with it during her pregnancy. About 40,000 babies a year are born with a viral infection known as cytomegalovirus (CMV) (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 352-356). These babies develop serious disabilities including mental retardation and loss of vision and hearing.Some of the other infections that can cause birth defects include syphilis, toxoplasmosis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis and parvovirus (Benneth, 2006, 217-230). In unusual cases, having a chicken pox during pregnancy can also cause birth defect. Much absorption of alcohol during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol syndrome. This syndrome includes mental retardation, low birth weight and heart problems. If alcohol has severe cause, so is the improper use of drugs. Drugs that can cause birth defects include tetracycline, sulfa drugs, hormone supplements and recreational drugs such as cocaine and LSD.Some birth defects, such as neural tube defects and cleft lip and palate are considered multifactorial birth defects which are caused by a combination of environmental and genetic factors. Other causes of birth defects are Rh disease. This disease is the incompatibility of the mother’s and baby’s positive and negative blood factors (3). Common Birth Defects The most common defects in the United States are the Cleft lip or palate and Down syndrome. Each year, about 6,800 and 5,500 babies are born with cleft lip/ palate and Down syndrome respectively (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 352-356).Effects of cleft lip/ palate include problems in eating, speech and language. Cleft lip/ palate are not dangerous and surgical repair of the cleft can be done when the child reach the right age and size and is in good health to tolerate surgery. The most common problem encountered by children with clefts is hear infections. The cleft allows fluid and germs to enter the ears more easily that norma l that causes the infections in the ear. The occurrence of cleft lip/ palate can also cause more cavities leading to dental problems, thus, dental checkup is recommended by doctors.Moreover, statistics show that about 1,900 babies are born with a serious heart defect called transposition of the great arteries each year (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 352-356). Though advances in surgery developed the outlook for affected babies, heart defects still remain as the leading cause of birth defect infant deaths (Martin, 619-622). Doctors and many experts can not explain the real causes of abnormality in the heart, although both genetic and environmental factors are considered.Another defect that is caused by both genetic and environmental factors (including insufficient amount of folic acid) is the Spina Bifida or open spine. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), about 1,300 cases occur each year. Other common birth defects include musculoskeletal defec t (arm and leg defect), gastrointestinal defects, and eye defects (). Martin, 619-622 Birth Defect of Body Chemistry Birth defects of body chemistry are not visible, but they can be harmful and worst, fatal. In 2002, about 3,000 babies were born with defects affecting body chemistry.A recessive genetic disease is the common cause of disorder of body chemistry. The inability of cells to produce enzymes or proteins that are needed to carry substance from one place to another to change certain chemicals to another is the main cause of this disease. An example is Tay – Sachs disease. Affected babies lack an enzyme needed to break down certain fatty substances in the brain cells. These fatty substances destroy brain cells that may result to blindness, paralysis and even death at the age of 5. Another example is phenylketonuria (PKU).In this disease, the baby cannot process a part of protein which builds up and damage the brain. Birth Defect Testing There are two types of testing a vailable in many hospitals and health centers to look for possible occurrence of birth defects. The first one is the screening test, which is able to look whether the baby is likely to have birth defects. If the screen test is positive, the second teat which is the diagnostic test should be performed. The rule of the diagnostic test is to confirm or rule out the possible problem that was detected by the screen test.Screening tests The processes involve in performing screen test that looks for Down syndrome are the nuchal fold ultrasound and a blood test. The ultrasound test uses sound waves to measure the thickness of the fetus’ neck while the blood test is intended to measure the levels of beta-hCG and a protein called pregnancy- associated plasma protein. Another screening test that is done between 15-20 weeks of pregnancy is the maternal serum triple or quadruple screening test. These tests check the amounts of three or four substances in a pregnant woman’s blood.Es timation of the chance of the fetus to have Down syndrome or other health problems is done after these blood tests. The quad screen on the other hand, check the substances (alpha-fetoprotein, and unconjugated estriol) and the level of hormone inhibin A. The doctors estimate the tendency of a woman to have a child with birth defects or other health problems through the data provided by the tests along with the age of the woman and other certain factors. Ultrasound on the other hand is a test that shows the development of the baby.This is usually done during the 18th and 20th week of pregnancy. Ultrasound can be used to screen some chromosomes with problems and find structural problems of the heart, spine, abdomen and other parts of the body. Diagnostic test Doctors usually used Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) to look at cells in the placenta. In this test, a sample of chorionic villus cells is collected by putting a small tool into the uterus through the vagina or by putting a needle through the belly into the uterus. This test can find many family diseases such as hemophilia and sickle cell disease.Another test under diagnostic is Amniocentesis which looks for many chromosomal problems by looking at the cells in the amniotic fluid. This test can find neural tube defects such as Spina bifida. Newly- born babies can also be tested, with the permission of the parents, for possible birth defects. Usually, all states perform PKU and congenital hypothyroidism on all the babies. The tandem mass spectroscopy is a new technique used by many state to newborn babies. This technique provides many features that screens for many disorders of metabolism on a small blood sample. PreventionThere are many ways of reducing the risk of a woman having a baby with birth defect. These ways should be remember and should be take into consideration by many women who wants to have a healthy with no physical or mental defects. One important thing to remember is the preconception visit wi th the health care provider. The health provider identifies the health conditions, such as high blood pressure and diabetes, which may cause risk in pregnancy. The provider can advice on lifestyle factors, such as quitting smoking and alcohol drinking that can cause risk in pregnancy.The medication intake of the woman is also check by the health provider to make sure that the medication is safe to pregnancy. The visit to health providers is crucial to women with chronic health problems, such as diabetes and high blood pressure. A great example is the woman which have diabetes has more likely to have a baby with birth defect compare to the woman who is not diabetic. Controlling the blood sugar levels of the woman starting before pregnancy can give low risk of having a baby with serious birth defects (11). This advice can be provided by the health care providers.Another thing that can be done by the health provider during the preconception visit is to see whether the vaccinations of t he woman are up to date. If the woman has no vaccines against chickenpox and rubella, she has to be vaccinated before pregnancy. In this way, possible risk of birth defect can be lower against woman with no vaccines. Vaccinated woman should wait for a month after being vaccinated before trying to become pregnant. All women should also know their health history including that of their partner and their family. With this, the provider can identify risk factors for inherited genetic conditions.The usual thing that the provider does when this case occurs is to refer the couples to genetic counselor that can explain the risk of birth defects and provide them assistance in conducting proper tests. Pregnant woman or woman who is planning to get pregnant should avoid any alcohol absorption, smoking and intake of drugs. The woman should not take any medication over the counter without making sure that this medication is safe for pregnant women. All women who could become pregnant should take a daily multivitamins containing folic acid.Studies show that proper intake of folic acid during early pregnancy will provide low risk of having a baby with neural tube defects (Spina bifida). Folic Acid to Prevent Birth Defects Folic acid is a synthetic form of folate which is a b vitamin found in a variety of foods. Folate is needed both before and in the first weeks of pregnancy and can help reduce the risk of having babies with common birth defects such as neural tube defects, which affect the brain and spinal cord. Neural tube defects can occur in an embryo before a woman realizes she is pregnant.This is the reason why it is important for all women age 15 to 45 to include folate in their balanced diet. With this, women who will get pregnant reduce their risk of having a baby with defect of the brain or spinal cord. New technologies were developed to include folate in many food supplements. The Food and Drug Administration requires food manufacturers to fortify enriched grain p roducts with folic acid. In this way, women can get sufficient amount of folic acid even in breads and fortified grains such as enriched pasta, rice, waffles and cereal bars. Other ways for pregnant women to have sufficient amount of folic acid are as follows:1) Eat fruits, dark-green leafy vegetables, dried beans and peas, and other foods that are natural sources of folate, 2) Eat folic acid-fortified enriched cereal grain products and breakfast cereals, 3) Take a food supplement containing folic acid. Nutrition information indicated on the labels of many food and dietary supplements can guide many women in identifying the amount of folic acid they are obtaining. Neural Tube Birth Defects The technical names of the two major neural tube birth defects reduced by adequate folate intake are anencephaly and Spina bifida.With proper medical treatment, most babies born with Spina bifida can survive to adulthood. But they may require leg braces, crutches, and other devices to help them wa lk. Other maternal factors also may contribute to the development of neural tube defects. Among these include the following: 1) use of certain ant seizure medications, 2) severe overweight, 3) family history of neural tube defects, 4) prior neural tube defect-affected pregnancy, 5) fever during early pregnancy and 6) diabetes. Studies about Folate In the 1950’s, scientist first suggested a connection between neural tube birth defects and diet.This incidence has always been higher in low socioeconomic groups in which women may have poorer diets. Another study looked at folic acid intake in Hungarian women. The evidence indicated that mothers who had never given birth to babies with neural tube defects and who took a multivitamin and mineral supplement with folic acid had less risk in subsequent pregnancies for having babies with neural tube defects than women given a placebo. Another study conducted by the U. S. Public health service in September 1992 resulted to a data that s hows that all women of childbearing age capable of becoming pregnant consume 0.4 mg of folate daily to reduce the risk of having a pregnancy with Spina bifida. This value corresponds to FDA’s Daily Value for folic acid, which is 400 micrograms for non-pregnant women. On the other hand, the Department of Agriculture said that many women between 19 and 50 consume much less than 400 micrograms of folate a day. Where to obtain Folic Acid Folate occurs naturally in a variety of foods, including liver, dark-green leafy vegetables such as collards, turnip greens, and Romaine lettuce, broccoli and asparagus, citrus fruits and juices.Folate can also be obtained from dietary supplements, such as folic acid tablets and multivitamins with folic acid, and from fortified breakfast cereals. Certain information on food and dietary supplement labels can help women spot foods containing substantial amounts of folate. The exact amount of folic acid is indicated in the label’s nutrition f acts panel. Some food and dietary supplement labels may claim that their product has sufficient amount of folic acid that reduce risk of having babies with birth defects. The products that claim this must: 1) provide 10 percent or more of the daily value for folic acid per serving;2) not contain more than 100 percent of the daily value for vitamins A and D per serving because high intakes of these vitamins are associated with other birth defects; and 3) List on the label’s Nutrition or Supplement facts panel the amount by weight in micrograms. This claim about folate is supported by the studies and statistics have been discussed but these alone will not ensure a healthy baby with no birth defects. Not only folate intake, but genetics is one of the factor that affect the pregnancy and providing risk to have babies with defects. Women have options for reaching the folate intake goal.They can attain this both before and during pregnancy by having a healthy balanced diet. The com bination of having proper intake of folic acid will ensure that women have low risk of having babies with birth defects. References American Academy of Pediatrics. Cytomegalovirus, in Pickering, L. K. (ed. ), Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, 26th edition. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics, 259-262. Benneth, K. A. Fetal Surgery for Myelomeningocele, In Wyszynski. Neural Tube Defects from Origin to Treatment. New York City, Oxford University Press, 2006, 217-230.Birth Defects. Retrieved May 18, 2008, from Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Spina bifida and Anencephaly Before and after Folic Acid Mandate, 1995-1996. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, volume 53, number 17, 362-365. Children , Youth and Women’s Health Service. Alcohol- Effects on Unborn Children. Retrieved May 20, 2008, from Department of Human Service. Birth Defects in Victoria in 2003 and 2004. Retrieved May 18, 2008, from http://www.betterhea lth. vic. gov. au/bhcv2/bhcarticles. nsf/pages/Birth_defects_in_Victoria_2003_to_2004 Department of Health and Human Services, Center for Diseases Control and Prevention. Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Diseases. Retrieved May 20, 2008, from http://www. cdc. gov/ncbddd/fas/fasask. htm Martin, J. A. , et al. Annual Summary of Vital Statistic. Pediatrics, Volime115, number 3, 619-634. Millensky, Aubrey. (1989). Genetic Disorders and the Fetus. 3rd edition, 201-267. New York: Plenum Press. (1995)Tropical Pediatrics and Environmental Child Health, Vol. 23, number 1, 4-10.

Longitudinal Analysis Using Panel Data for Assessing Seasonality Effects on the Food Security Situation in Tajikistan 2005 Hbs

Issue: Longitudinal analysis using panel data for assessing seasonality effects on the food security situation in Tajikistan 2005 HBS Tajikistan: Longitudinal analysis using panel data for assessing seasonality effects on the food security situation in Tajikistan 2005 HBS RAMASAWMY, Seevalingum FAO Statistics Division, Rome. Italy Household income and expenditure survey (HIES) usually collects food data from households at only one period which may refer to one week, two weeks or one month. Most HIES extend the field work over the entire period of one year to account for any seasonal effects of household expenditure particularly food consumption. The survey estimates assume seasonal effects cancelled out in large groups of households but not at the level of the individual household. Thus, the inter-household variation estimated on the basis of such data would tend to include the seasonal effects. However, the Tajikistan Household Budget Survey (HBS) presents a particular characteristic that it collects expenditure and income data from the same household over a long period of time. The longitudinal design survey accounts for all variations including the seasonal effects when analysed over the months of the yearly period. This paper presents some trend analysis of food security statistics derived from the 2005 Tajikistan household panel monthly food consumption data collected from the sample of 925 households and evaluate the impact of the variability of the distribution of the food consumption in the food security statistics estimates. Keywords: Food consumption data, Food security statistics, Panel data, Dietary energy consumption, Food Deprivation, Critical food poverty, Coefficient of variation. Acknowledgements: FAO (Statistics Division and Food Security Information for Action Programme) for technical assistance and the European Community for financial support. 1. BACKGROUND Tajikistan is a landlocked country, largely mountainous and sparsely inhabited, 90 percent is mountainous and the total area splits the country into four regions (Oblasts) and one independent city, the national capital Dushanbe. Only seven percent of the land area is arable; cotton and wheat are the main important crops. Aluminium is the major country resource together with other limited mineral resources such as silver, gold, uranium, and tungsten. With abundant water resources, it possesses much hydropower facilities which are however not well distributed among its population. The civil war (1992-97) severely damaged the already weak economic infrastructure and caused a sharp decline in industrial and agricultural production. While Tajikistan has experienced steady economic growth since 1997, nearly two-thirds of the population continues to live in poverty. Economic growth reached 10. percent in 2004 but dropped to eight percent in 2005 and to 7 percent in 2006. Tajikistan's economic situation, however, remains fragile due to uneven implementation of structural reforms, weak governance, widespread unemployment, and the external debt burden. Unemployment is officially estimated at 30 percent, while the figure is likely to be much higher. Lack of alternative sources of livelihoods continue to exacerb ate household food insecurity and results in under-employment in the agricultural sector, while a large number of young men seasonally or definitely migrate for employment in other CIS countries. There is a high mobility of the working population to Russia, where more than half a million of the population are currently working. The 2007 Tajikistan population was about seven million; nearly 70 percent live in rural areas. The annual population growth is about 2 percent. 2. OBJECTIVES, METHODS AND DATA The paper analyses the trends of food security statistics derived from the monthly and quarterly food consumption data of the Tajikistan 2005 HBS. It also evaluates the trend variations of inequality measures of dietary energy onsumption due to other factors such as income and area of residence and their effects on the measurement of food deprivation. The Tajikistan State Committee of Statistics has been conducting household budget survey (HBS) based on the Soviet methodology collecting household consumption expenditure from a fixed sample of households over time. A nationally representative sample of 925 households was selected from the 2000 population census data frame using th e multi-stage stratification. Rural and urban areas together with criteria of mountains, valley, uplands, lowlands and country borders on the north and south were accounted for. The households were selected at the last stage using the available administrative data with regard to the composition of the household. Household detailed expenditure including food and income data are collected using daily records from the same 925 households over years since January 2000. Each household receives a monthly incentive equivalent to one dollar in local currency. The Tajikistan HBS collected consumption and expenditure data from 925 households over the year using eight different types of questionnaires which enable the collection of complementary expenditure data on a daily, monthly and quarterly basis. Food data are recorded in detail, – stock at the start of the month for each food item, purchases, own production, transfers, (aid, gifts, etc. ) during the month on a daily basis, and closing stock at the end of the month. Income is also collected by sources on a daily and monthly basis. SCS uses a detailed nutrient conversion table covering dietary energy, protein, fat and carbohydrate values for computing nutrient values. The Tajikistan 2005 HBS monthly food consumption data together with the household income were analysed using the FAO statistical procedures of the food security statistics module (FSSM). The paper compares the food security statistics (FSS) estimates from the two sets of data namely the twelve sets of monthly food consumption data and the quarterly aggregated data of the 925 households. The food consumption in terms of dietary energy and expenditure are examined together with the dietary energy unit value at the national level and by the four main regions, Dushanbe, RPR, Sogd and Chatlon and by income quintiles. The inequality measure of food assess is studied in much details to evaluate the variation of area of residence and income over the months of 2005. Measures of prevalence of hunger, food deprivation and critical food poverty are also discussed. Lastly the food expenditure share of total consumption and the diet diversity are compared for the two sets of data. 3. FOOD SECURITY STATISTICS DERIVED USING THE LONGITUDINAL APPROACH. a. Dietary energy consumption The average daily dietary energy consumption (DEC) of the Tajik was 2150 kcal in 2005. The DEC by regions and income levels showed wide fluctuations over the months of the year 2005 as illustrated in Figures 1 and 2 below. The population of the capital city Dushanbe and RPR regions had lower DEC levels than the national level during all the months of the year. These two regions had low food production as Dushanbe is the capital city and RPR is the region of aluminium ores and had to rely on food imports from other local regions or imports from neighbouring countries. However, Sogd, the industrial region and Chatlon, the cotton and wheat growing region had DEC higher than the national level almost all the months of the year. These two regions have good food availability as they contain the largest cropping areas cultivating crops such as potatoes, barley, melons, etc. Figure 1: Trends of DEC by Regions Figure 2: Trends of DEC by Income levels |[pic] |[pic] | Analysing the DEC by daily per person income quintiles showed a gradual increasing in the overall monthly level of dietary energy consumption from the lowest to the highest income population groups. The population of the three lowest income groups had DEC below the national minimum dietary energy requirement (MDER) of 1880 kcal/person/day during all the months of the year. Those of the two highest income quintiles had DEC well above the national average DEC. The fluctuations in the DEC of the four lowest income groups over the months were small and less irregular than those observed among regions. However, the highest income population group had more pronounced fluctuations which kept increasing over the months with peaks in March and October. The dietary energy consumption among the Tajik population related more to income levels than place of residence. The levels of DEC for the population of the first four income quintiles did not differ greatly in magnitude. The average daily per person income ranged from 0. 91 Somoni for the lowest quintile to 1. 91 Somoni for the fourth one while the highest quintile had a much higher average of 3. 20 Somoni. This group of high income population which were present in all the four regions may probably influence those observed fluctuations. March and October 2005 were the two months registering high peaks in dietary energy consumption, probably linked to national socio-cultural or religious events. More than 90 percent of Tajiks are Sunnis and were most probably fasting in October 2005 which was the month of Ramadan in Tajikistan. It is a well known fact that during that special religious month, there is a high acquisition and consumption of food in terms of both quality and quantities particularly among the high income levels households. In addition, there is much sharing of food among the community with a large part of food given away by households and at the same time received by other households. However, the recording of such data on food transfers did not take place, thus leaving its effect unknown. b. Food expenditure The national average daily per person monetary values of the food expenditure fluctuated over the months of the year with the lowest value (1. 12 Somoni) in February and the highest value (1. 68) in October when there was that overall high level of consumption. The analysis by regions showed that the population of Dushanbe had a relatively low level of dietary energy consumption, but food expenditure higher than the national level indicating that prices in the capital city were higher than in other parts of Tajikistan probably due to a high importation of food products from other regions or countries. The industrial region of Sogd showed a high level of food expenditure ranging from 1. 17 to 1. 61 Somoni slightly higher than the average food spending in Dushanbe. The population of RPR had the overall lowest food expenditure (Figures 3). Figure 4 shows the monthly trends of food expenditure by income levels. Again the hierarchical differences from highest to lowest income quintile are clearly observed. Food expenditures for the population of the three lowest income quintiles were lower than the national level for all the months of the year. The amount of money spent on food remained at almost the same levels, but with an increase in October followed by a decrease in November and another increase in December probably due with the end of the year celebrations events. The population of the highest income quintile had increasingly high food expenditures with peaks in the three last months of the year of 2005. Figure 3: Trends of food expenses by Regions Figure 4: Trends of food expenses by Income levels |[pic] |[pic] | Figure 4 shows the monthly trends of food expenditure by income levels. Again the hierarchical differences from highest to lowest income quintile are clearly observed. Food expenditures for the population of the three lowest income quintiles were lower than the national level for all the months of the year. The amount of money spent on food remained at almost the same levels, but with an increase in October followed by a decrease in November and another increase in December probably due with the end of the year celebrations events. The population of the highest income quintile had increasingly high food expenditures with peaks in the three last months of the year of 2005. c. Dietary unit value The national average dietary unit value was 0. 57 Somoni per 1000 kcal. This value varied from 0. 55 Somoni for the months of February and March to 0. 63 Somoni in December. The population of the capital city Dushanbe had the highest dietary energy unit value over all months of the year of 2005, paying abnormal high values in the months of January (0. 71 Somoni) and October (0. 75 Somoni). Population of Sogd had also a high overall dietary energy unit value which increased slowly over the months of 2005 (see Figure 5). It is surprising to note that the dietary unit value fell in all regions in the month of November before going up again in December. This could probably be due to a fall in food prices resulting in a surplus of food items on the market due to the end of the religious month of October. Figure 5: Dietary energy unit value by Regions Figure 6: Dietary energy unit value Income levels |[pic] |[pic] | The dietary energy unit value showed marked increasing patterns over the months of the year when analysed by income levels with again a drop in the values in November followed by an increase in December. The lowest quintile population had an overall yearly dietary energy unit value of 0. 49 Somoni compared to a value of 0. 66 Somoni for the highest income quintile. d. Diet Diversity The share of total calories of nutrients in total calories of dietary energy showed a protein deficiency diet when compared to the WHO norms (Figure 7). The share contribution of protein was around nine percent, while the |Figure 7: Share (%) of nutrients in total calories and WHO guidelines | |WHO minimum and maximum values are 10 and 15 percent respectively. The| | |share contribution of fats was within the WHO norms, but the share | | |contribution of carbohydrates (70 percent) was more towards the | | |maximum value of 75 percent. Consumption of protein food sources such| | |as pulses, fish, meat or dairy products were very low. | | | |[pic] | The regional analysis of the share of protein calorie contribution to total calories is given in Figure 8 and showed large and uneven variations were observed among the regions over the months of the year. The population of Dushanbe were more protein deficient (almost below 9 percent in all months except July to September) than other regions while the population of RPR had relatively, though still deficient, higher protein consumption. There were two months (July and September) when there was increasing protein consumption in all regions probably due to availability of protein rich food products coming from the harvest seasons. There was no clear difference in the level of protein consumption among population groups of different income levels over the months of the year (Figure 9), except that all income groups showed the same increasing patterns over the months of July and September, before falling down in October. This situation could be the due to the scarcity of high protein food products on the Tajikistan markets or highly prohibitive selling prices if available. Figure 8: Share of protein calorie by Regions Figure 9: Share of protein calorie by Income levels |[pic] |[pic] | e. Inequality. The distribution of dietary energy consumption is assumed to be lognormal and its variance is a function of the Coefficient of Variation (CVx). This CVx includes income and biological sources of variations of dietary energy consumption and is a measure of access to food. The biological variation (CVr) accounts for factors such as sex age composition, body weight and physical activity of household members. The CVr is estimated as a value of 20 percent. |Figure 10: CV of dietary energy consumption due to income by 2005 quarters and |Figure 10 gives the inequality of food access due to income | |months |computed for groups of households classified according to the | | |income deciles. The national CVx of dietary energy consumption| | |(DEC) on yearly basis had a value of 30 percent which included| | |a value of 22 percent corresponding to the CV of DEC due to | | |income. The CVx values estimated for quarterly data differed | | |marginally from the yearly CVx. The estimated monthly CVx was | | |less than the yearly CVx, except for the months of October and| | |November. |[pic] | | A striking observation is that the monthly inequality measures of DEC due to income were in most cases (except the three last months) less than the quarterly or yearly values which are inflated with other variations due to inter household, seasonal (within quarter) and other non random factors. Those variations were analysed using the available 2005 longitudinal food data with between household factors of area of residence and income using a linear model of the log of dietary energy consumption with repeated measures (months). The analysis of variance results are shown below. |[pic] |The variation estimates in the rightmost column have been | | |converted to the original dietary energy consumption scale for| | |better understanding. As expected area of residence (rural and| | |urban) and income levels (deciles) were significant sources of| | |the between household variation (standard deviation of 2062 | | |Kcal/ person/ day). This variation reflects sources of | | |variations not included in the model, the random variation and| | |the undesirable variation due to sampling design and | | |instrumental errors. The within sources of variation were | | |significant in time (months) and time within area of residence| | |and time within income levels. | The within household variation (standard deviation of 608 Kcal/person/day) was smaller than the between household variation. However there is a significant source of variation due to seasonality. In this study one should take into account that the between household variation estimates may be over-estimated as result of the sampling design. This study does not address on this design effect on the variation between households. In commonly used household survey design where the household reference period is of one month or less and households are allocated over a one-year survey period the sources of the within variation (month, month within area, month within income and error) is added to the survey estimates. This means that in NHS considering random allocation throughout the year add variation to the between household CV and hence over-estimate the prevalence of food deprivation. f. Food deprivation. The longitudinal data of Tajikistan 2005 HBS was also analysed by comparing the food deprivation over the four quarters to study the food consumption distribution and any improvement in the level of undernourishment over the one year period. Four percent of the population had moved out from the food deprived population over the year due to a 2 percent increase in the average daily dietary energy consumption and a three percent point decrease in the coefficient of variation (CV) due to income from 31 to 28 percent. The MDER of 1880 kcal/person/day was the same for both quarters. Movements of population from food deprived population were observed in both urban and rural areas by two and six percent respectively. There were marginal increases in DEC were noted in both urban and rural areas, but the later registered a significant 5 percentage point decrease in the CV due to income. While there were significant improvements among the population of the three lowest income quintiles, there were small set backs for the populations of the two highest quintiles groups due mainly to an around 2 percent fall in their dietary energy consumption (Figures 11 and 12). Figure 11: Food deprivation (%) by RegionsFigure 12: Food deprivation (%) by Income levels |[pic] |[pic] | The prevalence of food critical poverty which measures food income deprivation showed a marginal fall of 1 percentage point at national level from quarter one to quarter 4 of the year 2005 (Figure 13). Figure 13: Food critical poverty (%) by quarters of 2005 national and sub national levels |[pic] | | | |The prevalence of critical food poverty fluctuated over the four | | |quarters of the year. There was a high prevalence of food poverty | | |in the second quarter at the national and sub national levels. It | | |then fell in the following quarters. However, food critical | | |poverty in urban areas was higher than rural areas due to the food| | |availability at lower prices. g. Depth or Intensity of Food Inadequacy Figures 14 and 15 below show the depth of food poverty with relation to the MDER over the four quarters of the year, at the national and sub national levels and by income levels respectively. The Figures show that urban areas which had a low DEC had a higher food deficit than the national and rural areas. The food deficit was less in the fourth quarter at the national level and in urban and rural areas. This was also true for the income levels due to the high level of DEC observed as from October 2005. There was a general high food deficit during the third quarter in almost all the regional or economic population groupings and the high income group witnessed a food deficit of about 150 kcal/person/day. Figure 14: Food deficit (Kcal) to MDER Regions Figure 15: Food deficit (Kcal) to MDER Income levels |[pic] |[pic] | h. Food share The share of food expenditure to total consumption expenditure estimated from the annual household data at national level was 69 percent. The share of food expenditure at national level showed an erratic trend over the four quarters of the year 2005. From a level of 68. 4 percent in the first quarter, it increased to 69. 6 percent, fell down to 65 percent in the third quarter and rose to 65. 3 percent in the last quarter. The same patterns occurred in urban and rural areas, but with higher magnitude in rural areas and lower values for urban areas (figure 18). However, the food share showed a decreasing trend over the four quarters with increasing income levels with a high food share (80 percent) among the population of the low income group to about 50 percent for those of the highest income group. The second quarter had the maximum food share in most of the population groupings (Figure 19) which could be a period of harvest of some food crops. Figure 16: Food expenditure share by Region Figure 17: Food expenditure share by Income levels |[pic] |[pic] | Figures 18 and 19 illustrate the share of dietary energy consumption by food sources at national and sub-national levels and by income levels respectively for the four quarters of 2005. Purchase was almost the only source of dietary energy consumption for the population of the urban regions, while own production food constituted a significant share of DEC to the order of about 40 percent in most of the other population groupings. There was little variation in own production contribution between the quarters, apart from some high share in quarters one and four for the high income level groups, probably due to the harvesting season. Figure 19: Share of DEC by food sources & Figure 18: Share of DEC by food sources & Regions Income levels |[pic] |[pic] | 4. CONCLUSION The analysis of the longitudinal food consumption data of Tajikistan 2005 HBS provides some useful and pertinent characteristics of food security statistics: †¢ Food deprivation differed by seasons and by income levels. †¢ Food consumption is seasonal and is influenced by national ocio-religious events. †¢ Food demand was high in high income levels during specific periods. †¢ Dietary energy unit value differed with seasons and income levels. †¢ Diet consumption of nutrients was affected over the seasons. †¢ Food consumption from purchases were not affected by seasons while that from own production varied over the months of the year. †¢ There was a seasonal affect on the diet consumption of nutrients †¢ Food inequality or access measures were low when estimated with monthly data and the use of more aggregated d ata caused overestimation. The intensity of hunger differed by season and income levels †¢ Food share varied with seasons and level of income. REFERENCES 1. FAO (2003). Methodology for the measurement of food deprivation. Statistics Division, Food Security Statistics. Rome. Available at the Metadata of the Food Security Statistics webpage http://www. fao. org/faostat/foodsecurity/index_en. htm 2. FAO (2006). Food Security Statistics Module, Step 1 – Processing User Manual, Step 2 – Analysis User Manual and Step 3 – Reports User Manual, FAO July 2006. . Sibrian R Ramasawmy S and Mernies J (2007). Measuring hunger at sub national levels from household surveys using the FAO approach: MANUAL. FAO Statistics Division Working Paper Series No. ESS/ESSA/005e. Available at the webpage. http://www. fao. org/es/ess/faostat/foodsecurity/Papers_en. htm . 4. Tajikistan Food Insecurity Assessment report derived from the food consumption data of Tajikistan 2005 HBS, Dushan be August 2007. http://www. stat. tj/english/home. htm[pic]